Submerged Sherman Tank from the battle of Saipan. Still in water

The Battle of Saipan was a battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II, fought on the island of Saipan in the Mariana Islands from 15 June 1944 to 9 July 1944.

The invasion fleet embarking the expeditionary forces left Pearl Harbor on June 5, 1944, the same day Operation Overlord was launched with the invasion of Normandy (AKA the D-Day landings). The Normandy landings were the larger amphibious landing, but the Marianas invasion fielded the larger fleet.

By July 7, the Japanese had nowhere to retreat. Saito made plans for a final suicidal banzai charge. On the fate of the remaining civilians on the island, Saito said, “There is no longer any distinction between civilians and troops. It would be better for them to join in the attack with bamboo spears than be captured.” At dawn, with a group of a dozen men carrying a great red flag in the lead, the remaining able-bodied troops, about 3,000 men, charged forward in the final attack. Amazingly, behind them came the wounded, with bandaged heads, crutches, and barely armed.

The Japanese surged over the American front lines, engaging both Army and Marine units. The 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 105th U.S. Infantry were almost destroyed, losing 650 killed and wounded.

However, the fierce resistance of these two battalions, as well as that of Headquarters Company, 105th Infantry, and elements of 3rd Battalion, 10th Marines (an artillery unit) resulted in over 4,300 Japanese killed.

For their actions during the 15-hour Japanese attack, three men of the 105th Infantry were awarded the Medal of Honor – all posthumously. Numerous others fought the Japanese until they were overwhelmed by the largest Japanese Banzai attack in the Pacific War .

Many hundreds of Japanese civilians committed suicide in the last days of the battle, some jumping from “Suicide Cliff” and “Banzai Cliff”. Efforts by U.S. troops to persuade them to surrender instead were mostly futile.

Widespread propaganda in Japan portraying Americans and British as “devils” who would treat POWs barbarically, deterred surrender (see Japanese Military Propaganda (WWII)).

In the end, about 22,000 Japanese civilians died. Almost the entire garrison of troops on the island — at least 30,000 — died.

For the Americans, the victory was the most costly to date in the Pacific War. 2,949 Americans were killed and 10,364 wounded, out of 71,000 who landed.

The Tank was probably off-loaded from an Landing Ship, Tank or LST (not so jokingly referred to as Large Slow Targets). It is also possible that the LST was disabled by Japanese shelling.

The tank crew may have tried to make a mad dash to the beach but it was just too far away. The water was shallow enough that the crew probably escaped without drowning, but, the withering rain of bullets, artillery and mortar fire may have killed them.

This tank was about 300 meters off the beach. There were 3 but not really close to each other and this one is turned and looks to be engaged with a pillbox on the shore and has a nasty antitank round below the water line on the starboard side right behind the driver/front gunner.

Being the typical tourists we couldn’t resist swimming out and getting close to it and checking it out. I will see if I can find the interior shots of it. What was really neat is the barrell is actually pointing at a bunker/pillbox that had taken a shot and collapsed.

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Amazing armor of Henry II, king of France (16th century)

Henry II, also known as Duke d’ Orleans, was a great monarch of the House of Valois and was King of France from 1547 until 1559.

He was a competent administrator who was an active suppressor of Protestants in his territory. Like his father, Francis I, Henry favored the arts, and he was a patron of Renaissance culture. The King was involved in projects which were begun by Francis I, including the reconstruction of Louvre, and his major project was the chateau of Anet. He also loved literature, especially poetry, and wherever he appeared, he was beautifully dressed in the latest fashion.

Married to Catherine de’ Medici and the father of future monarchs Francis II, Henry III, and Charles IX and seven other children, King Henry fell in love with the beautiful aristocrat Diane de Poitiers when he was 16 and remained in love with her until the day he died. Diane was 20 years his senior.

One of his most magnificent items of dress was the Parade Armor which today can be seen on display in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. It is believed that this fabulous armor dates back to the 16th century (1553-1555) and it was intricately decorated by Etienne Delaune, a French goldsmith and engraver. He had a great style which was based on the style of the Little Masters of Germany.

he armor was one of the king’s ceremonial costumes and is embossed on the breastplate and back with figures that reflect his great military achievements. The whole armor is adorned with images of human and fantastical characters.

At the center of the breastplate is a figure of a Roman warrior receiving a tribute of arms from a group of ladies who are kneeling, and above them, on the shoulders, the god Apollo can be seen chasing the nymph Daphne.

There is also a carving of Apollo on the back of the armor, but in this depiction, he is slaying the monster Python. Henry’s badge, in the shape of a crescent moon, appears in several places.

Many historians and art critics believe that the armor is one of the most elaborate of its kind in France. There are about 20 sketches from the 16th century which many historians believe were made by Delaune.

Henry II died after a jousting accident. A fragment of a splintered lance drove into his eye and he contracted septicemia. It is not known what armor he wore at the joust.

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The only complete viking helmet ever found - Gjermundbu

The popular image of the Vikings is one of fearsome warriors wearing horned helmets. Many depictions of the Vikings display this particular attribute. However, there is only one preserved helmet from the Viking Age and this does not have horns.

On March 30 1943, historians in  Oslo gained the information that a farmer named Lars Gjermundbo found and dug into a huge mound on his land near the farm of Gjermundbu, southern Norway. The place was examined by archaeologists (Marstrander and Blindheim) the next month and the result was really fascinating.

The mound was 25 meters long, 8 meters broad in the widest place and 1.8 meters high in the middle part. The most of the mound was formed by stony soil; however, the interior of the middle part was paved with large stones. Some stones were found even on the surface of the mound. In the middle part, about one meter below the surface and under the stone layer, the first grave was discovered. It is believed that one of the buried men was a petty king from the Ringerike area.

Grav I consists of dozens of objects connected to personal ownership and various activities, including fighting, archery, horse riding, playing games and cooking. Among others, the most interesting are unique objects, like the chain-mail and the helmet, which became very famous and are mentioned or depicted in every relevant publication.

The helmet is often described as the only complete helmet known from the Viking Age. 

The helmet was made of iron and was in the shape of a peaked cap made from four plates.The helmet consists of the spangen, or a horizontal rim and two vertical strips which together form the framework of the helmet, onto which the iron plates are riveted. The Gjermundbu is a typical example of a Viking spectical helmet, which offers the carrier good face protection while also guaranteeing an adequate field of vision. The helmet shares similarities with other preceding helmet designs, such as the Vendel helmets. These include the rounded cap, the spectacles, as well as the mail aventail.  It is now on display at the Museum of Cultural History of the University of Oslo. 

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One of the oldest diving suits in existence - called Wanha Herra

THE 'OLD GENTLEMAN' OF RAAHE -the oldest surviving diving suit in the world.

The best-known item in Raahe Museum is "the Old Gentleman", a diving suit from the early 18th century. This rarity was donated to the museum by Captain Leufstadius in 1860s.

The maker of the suit has mastered the latest achievements of the diving technology that made huge progress in the 18th century. The Old Gentleman is therefore regarded as a unique crossover form made from leather in the transition from the diving bell to the actual heavy diving suit.

The Old Gentleman is mostly made of cow leather. The seams are sewn with a waxed thread and sealed with pitch. The diving suit was made waterproof by sealing it with a mixture of pork fat, tar and pitch. The hood-shaped head is reinforced from the inside with a wooden framework. In the upper part of the hood is an opening for a wooden air pipe.

The diver wriggled himself into the diving suit through an opening in front of the body, which is closed by pressing the pitched mouth part together. This "sack mouth" was rolled on the belt and was attached to the diver's waist. The air was pumped to the diver through wooden pipes that were mutually connected with leather, either using a piston pump or bellows. The air was discharged through a shorter pipe on the backside.

Diving lasted for a short time, since the suit was not completely watertight and could not withstand high pressure. However, the diving suit did offer its user the opportunity of checking the condition of hulls without having to tilt the vessels or to bring them into dry dock.

The diving suit is presumably of Finnish origin, since the top parts of the boots remind one of the traditional short-shanked boots with laces, while the gloves are similar to those typical of Finnish foresters. A drawing from 1727, discovered in the Admiralty’s material held in the Swedish National Archive, depicts a diving suit that is similar to the Old Gentleman. This drawing has helped to date the time at which the Old Gentleman was manufactured.

The Old Gentleman visited exhibitions around the world, the last time being at the 1998 World Exposition in Lisbon. Its longest trip was to Philadelphia, in the United States. In connection with the Sea Finland exhibition that was held in London in 1985, the diving suit was playfully nicknamed the venerable Old Gentleman of Raahe, a name by which this gem of the people of Raahe is still known around the world.

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Viking axe from Mammen

In 1868 a farmer began to dig into the mound Bjerringhøj at Mammen near Viborg. During this work he chanced upon an unusually richly-furnished grave, which has become known as the grave from Mammen. A magnate was buried in the grave during the winter of 970-71 AD. He was given an expensive costume, a ceremonial axe with inlaid silver decoration and a large wax candle.

The buried man lay upon a bed of down cushions in a coffin placed in a wooden chamber – a so-called chamber-grave. At his feet lay two axes. On the coffin lid a bronze bucket, two wooden buckets and a large wax candle had been placed. The man wore costly clothing decorated with purple and red silk, as well as embroideries in red and blue. It is not known whether the deceased was Christian or pagan. The motifs on the one axe can be interpreted as both of these, but the large candle is probably a Christian symbol. The fine quality of the furnishings shows that the deceased presumably belonged to the circle around King Harald Bluetooth.

 One of the most magnificent finds from the Viking Age is one of the axes from the grave at Mammen. It is made of iron with silver inlay. The axe is decorated in the so-called Mammen style, which is named after this particular find. The style arose in the 900s and it survived until around 1000. The motifs on the axe can be interpreted as both Christian and pagan.

On one side a tree motif can be seen. It may symbolise the Christian Tree of Life or the pagan tree Yggdrasil. On the other side is an animal figure – perhaps the rooster Gullinkambi (Old Norse “golden comb”) or the Phoenix. According to Norse mythology Gullinkambi sits on top of the tree Yggdrasil. Here it wakes the Viking warriors every morning and it will crow at the beginning of Ragnarok (the end of the world). The Phoenix is a Christian mythological animal and a symbol of re-birth.

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Roman walls of Lugo

Remarkably intact Roman stone fortifications encircled this Spanish city for centuries. Built sometime around the 3rd century, the ring of towers and walls which now surround the city of Lugo were originally constructed to protect a Roman city from barbarians, and they continue to contain the world’s only city that is completely surrounded by ancient Roman walls. 

Making a bulbous circuit around the border of the town, the ancient walls stand almost 40 feet tall at their highest point, with curved lookout towers bulging out of the wall at irregular intervals. The top of the wall stays a consistent 14 or so feet in width which can still be walked in a complete circuit. Ten gates were built into the wall, and of them, five are still the Roman originals.

Though the walls were built to fend off the Germanic hordes, originally being joined by moats and interior defenses, those same hordes are now welcomed as tourists. Visitors are encouraged to stroll atop the wall from which they can see the entire town of Lugo and beyond.   
The walls consist of internal and external stone facing the core of the earth. It's a mixture of pebbles, gravel and worked Roman stone, cemented with water. The walls have been rebuilt over the centuries, but their shape has never been changed. Even many of the wall’s staircases are original.

The Roman Walls of Lugo still have 10 gates. Five of them are dated to the Roman times, but the other five were added after 1853 due to the expanding town population. Among the five original gates, the best preserved are the Porta Falsa and the Porta Miña. The second one is located near the only original vaulted arch set. The most popular gate is Porta Miña, which is on the way for pilgrimages to Santiago de Compostela.

After the fall of Roman control in 409 AD, Galicia became the independent Kingdom of Gallecia (known also as Galliciense Regnum). The old Roman capital of Galicia, Braga (currently in Portugal), became the new capital of the Kingdom controlled by the Germanic tribe Suebi.

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Hiroshima shadows

At 8:15 on the morning of August 6, 1945, a person sat on a flight of stone stairs leading up to the entrance of the Sumitomo Bank in Hiroshima, Japan. Seconds later, an atomic bomb detonated just 800 feet away, and

the person sitting on the stairs was instantly incinerated. Gone like that. But not without leaving a mark. By a flash of the heat rays with temperatures well over a 1,000 degrees or possibly 2,000 degrees centigrade, that person was incineratied on the stone steps. Up to about 10 years after the explosion, the shadow remained clearly on the stones, but exposure to rain and wind has been gradually blurring it. So, when the bank was newly built, the stone steps were removed and are now preserved at the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum.

Somewhere between 150,000 and 240,000 people died from the atomic bombings on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Many tens of thousands died in the days, weeks and years that followed. More died instantly. In Hiroshima, between 60,000 and 80,000 people were killed, literally incinerated into nothing, in a moment’s time. In Nagasaki, 40,000 people vanished in just one second.Somewhere between 150,000 and 240,000 people died from the atomic bombings on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Many tens of thousands died in the days, weeks and years that followed. More died instantly. In Hiroshima, between 60,000 and 80,000 people were killed, literally incinerated into nothing, in a moment’s time. In Nagasaki, 40,000 people vanished in just one second.

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Executioner sword with inscription: When I raise this sword, so I wish that this poor sinner will receive eternal life. Germany 1600s

Although the axe was favored in England, for centuries swords were used throughout Central Europe for beheadings. The blades were often etched with moralizing inscriptions and designs representing Justice (as here), the gallows, the rack, or the Crucifixion. By the early 1700s swords were no longer used in Europe for executions, but they still functioned as symbols of power.

The blades of executioner's swords were often decorated with symbolic designs, showing instruments of execution or torture, or the Crucifixion of Christ, combined with moralistic inscriptions. When no longer used for executions, an executioner's sword sometimes continued to be used as a ceremonial sword of justice, a symbol of judicial power.

The last executions by sword in Europe were carried out in Switzerland in 1867 and 1868, when Niklaus Emmenegger in Lucerne and Héli Freymond in Moudon were beheaded for murder. Swords are still used to carry out executions in Saudi Arabia.

Executioners’ swords were more common in continental Europe from the 1400s, particularly Germany, with England still preferring the axe. The sword hilt was normally of conventional cruciform shape with a large counter-balancing pommel. It was very well constructed, with high-quality steel used for the manufacture of the blade. The blade edge was extremely sharp and it was a requirement of the executioner to keep it well honed so that the head of the victim could be severed in one mighty blow. Blades were broad and flat backed, with a rounded tip. The sword was designed for cutting rather than thrusting, so a pointed tip (as in the case of military blades) was unnecessary.

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Medieval masks of shame

Shame masks were a type of embarrassing punishment device used in Europe during the middle ages until 18th century. They were usually made of cold, unyielding metal, and the masks were created in various mortifying designs.

While the heavy mask was certainly tortuous, the main point of the practice was to humiliate the offender as much as possible. Consequently, the masks were often made to look or sound silly and give folks an idea of the individual’s sin. For instance, some had donkey ears to signify a fool, long tongues to represent a gossiper, or giant pig noses to indicate the person was “dirty.” Some even made whistling sounds every time the wearer exhaled—much to the amusement of onlookers. On top of that, the criminal was then pushed into the stocks where they were subjected to the taunts, jeers, and possibly rotten tomatoes of passersby. Some of the masks also had an iron bit, which pressed uncomfortably down on the tongue of the offender. Before being practiced in Germany, it seems this particular form of abuse was inspired by the British “scold’s bridle,” a similar form of punishment mostly used on women.

In addition, this device also travelled across the Atlantic when the Puritans set up their colonies in the New World. Incidentally, another instrument of punishment for scolds, in both Europe and the New World, was the ducking stool, where the offender (again, usually women) was placed on the seat of a long pole, and then ducked in a pond or river. The punishment was also administered to quarrelsome married couples (in which the pair would be tied back to back on the ducking end of the device), as well as bad tradesmen.

The goal of schandmaskes was quite simple: punish and ridicule the offender so as to control the behavior. Townspeople looking at people wearing such masks, or participating in humiliating activities such as "riding the stang," would certainly get the message. Don't gossip. Don't be a pig. Know your place. Reinforcing cultural norms and expectations was certainly important enough to Europeans to develop such... strange methods. The question is: did they really work?

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Horned helmet of Henry VIII

One of the most iconic pieces of armor ever is the horned helmet of Henry VIII. It formed part of a magnificent armour, commissioned in 1511 by the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I as a gift for the young king, who would have worn the armour for court pageants rather than in combat.

The Horned helmet is technically called an armet, with protection for the skull, hinged cheek pieces, and a face defense. An armet is a type of helmet which was developed in the 15-th century. It was extensively used in Italy, France, England, the Low Countries and Spain.

It was distinguished by being the first helmet of its era to completely enclose the head while being compact and light enough to move with the wearer. Its use was essentially restricted to the fully armored man-at-arms.

Originally, the helmet had silver-gilt panels placed over rich, velvet cloth. The glasses were implemented because Henry VIII was actually nearsighted, a theory supplemented by the fact that there were dozens of glasses in his possession after his death. It was made for use in pageants rather than for combat. Henry VIII might have worn it at sumptuous events such as the parades that accompanied tournaments.

Following Henry’s death in 1547, it was probably placed on display among other arms and armour belonging to the king – while the rest of the armour was apparently discarded as scrap metal after the Civil War. The extraordinary appearance of the helmet probably saved it from destruction and it has remained one of the most enigmatic pieces in the collections ever since. 

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True colours of ancient sculptures

When we think of statues and buildings of the classical period, we tend to imagine white marble; scientists in recent years have discovered that it is, in fact, most likely that many of the buildings and statues were painted and, probably, adorned with jewelry.



White marble has been the norm ever since the Renaissance, when classical antiquities first began to emerge from the earth. The sculpture of Trojan priest Laocoön and his two sons struggling with serpents sent, it is said, by the sea god Poseidon (discovered in 1506 in Rome and now at the Vatican Museums) is one of the greatest early finds. Knowing no better, artists in the 16th century took the bare stone at face value. Michelangelo and others emulated what they believed to be the ancient aesthetic, leaving the stone of most of their statues its natural color. Thus they helped pave the way for neo-Classicism, the lily-white style that to this day remains our paradigm for Greek art. left: Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century AD

By the early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek and Roman sites was bringing forth great numbers of statues, and there were scholars on hand to document the scattered traces of their multicolored surfaces. Some of these traces are still visible to the naked eye even today, though much of the remaining color faded, or disappeared entirely, once the statues were again exposed to light and air. Some of the pigment was scrubbed off by restorers whose acts, while well intentioned, were tantamount to vandalism.

Ancient texts provide detailed information about the pigments used in antiquity. Actual pigment remains may be identified by various techniques, including polarized light microscopy, X-ray fluorescence and defraction analysis, and infrared spectroscopy. Most pigments were of mineral origin, such as red and yellow ocher, the bright red mercury sulfide cinnabar, the copper carbonates azurite (blue) and malachite (green), and the synthetic Egyptian blue, a copper calcium silicate. White was derived from lead or lime, black from carbonized bone or other materials. The use of organic pigments, such as red madder and murex shell purple, is also attested. Binding media were

organic and tend to be harder to identify; there is evidence for egg, casein, and wax.

left: “Cuirass Torso” (reconstruction), Acropolis, 460 BC

The example of the Cycladic statuettes shows that sculpture in the ancient Mediterranean received colorful decoration from very early on. In Egypt, wall reliefs and statues of stone and wood were painted in a range of colors similar to that of the tomb paintings. In Mesopotamia, the palaces of the Assyrian kings were decorated with extensive wall reliefs, whose colors are by now almost entirely faded. Wall paintings and decoration executed in glazed terracotta, as on Babylon’s famous Ishtar Gate, give us some idea of the original effect. Following the Assyrian example, painted reliefs were an integral part of palace architecture in the Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 BC). A fragment of a relief from Persepolis, one of the empire’s capital cities, preserves visible traces of red, green, and blue pigments.

Most ancient sculpture, whether depicting human or divine subjects, is incomplete without color. Only with the Renaissance did white or monochrome sculpture become a paradigmatic form of artistic expression. As we now know, this phenomenon would have startled ancient sculptors such as Praxiteles—just as the color reconstructions of ancient statues startle us today.

“Young Roman,” 3rd century CE

So-called “Peplos Kore,” original alongside reconstruction, Athens (540 BC

“Lion from Loutraki” (reconstruction), Greece, c. 570–560 BC

Archer from the western pediment of the Temple of Aphaia on Aigina; 

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The zweihänder sword that belonged to Grutte Pier (1480-1520), Friesian pirate and warlord.

In the early sixteenth century, Friesland was under the authority of George, Duke of Saxony. However, Charles, Duke of Egmond or Guelders, was also keen on possessing the Frisian region, resulting in a battle between their supporters. After George, Duke of Saxony, had given the territory to Charles of Egmond, yet another war broke out, this time between the Frisians and Holland. This war formed the backdrop for the rise of Pier Gerlofs Donia (circa 1480–1520), better known asGrutte Pier (Great Pier’). Grutte Pier and his sword have become an inseparable duo, symbols of the Frisian struggle for independence.

Pier Gerlofs is believed to have been born around 1480 in Kimswerd, near the city of Harlingen, Wonseradeel (located in modern Friesland, the Netherlands). His father was a man by the name of Gerlofs Pier, whilst his mother was Fokel Sybrants Bonga, who was the daughter of a Schieringer nobleman. Pier had at least three other siblings.

According to legend, Pier was around 7 feet (around 2.13 m) tall, and was so strong that he could bend a coin using just his thumb and forefinger. Another legend attesting to his great strength is that he was able to pick up a plough with just one hand.

Pier, a farmer from Kimswerd, had managed to elude the war until Saxon soldiers burnt down his farm in 1515. Pier and his companions in adversity decided to take up arms against first, the Saxon oppressors and later, against Holland, forming an armed band called ‘Arumer Zwarte Hoop’ (‘Black Gang from Arum’). Pier became leader of the ‘seinschipsluyden’ and fought as a pirate in battles on the Zuiderzee, capturing many English and Dutch ships. Frisians regard him as a freedom fighter, but to the Dutch he is an outlaw.

As Pier was aware that his army was no match against the Saxon mercenaries on land, he decided to take to the waters, and became a pirate. Pier was a successful pirate, and captured many ships belonging to his enemies that sailed on the Zuiderzee (Zuyder Sea). Pier held a personal grudge against the town of Medemblik, where the Schieringers first met the Duke of Saxony in secret to request his aid. It is recorded that Pier raided this coastal town in 1517, and then again in 1518/9 to avenge the capture and public execution of his lieutenant, Grutte Wyerd. In battle, Pier supposedly brandished a Biedenhänder, a sword that was wielded with two hands. ‘Grutte Pier’s Sword’ is today kept in the Fries Museum in Leeuwarden. This weapon is as tall as the legendary warrior himself, and weighs 6.6 kg (14.6 lbs).

In just two years of this hardcore scurvy pirate action, Pier sunk 132 enemy ship – including one battle where he destroyed 28 Dutch ships in a single day, a deed that earned him the badass nickname "The Cross of the Dutchmen".

When he wasn't making up insane tongue-twisters about fries and buter, Pier also attacked and plunder land targets as well as naval ones. In 1516, he attacked Medemblik, a stronghold of Saxon sympathizers. The city was sacked, razed to the ground, and its inhabitants massacred. Two enemy castles fell to him soon after. In 1517 the town of Asperen was also annihilated in a similar manner – the Dutch responded by sending a punitive fleet to bombard him with cannons. Pier's pirate armada captured 11 of their ships and drove the rest from the harbor.


Pier's countless battle wounds and injuries finally caught up with him, and in 1519 he retired as a rebel leader, went back to his new home, and died peacefully in his bed in 1520. His buddy Wijerd carried on the fight against the Saxons for a while, but that guy was no Giant of Kimswerd. He suffered a number of defeats and was decapitated in 1523. Charles V wasn't able to fully assume control over Friesland until 1524.

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2000 years old die from Egypt (with 20 sides)

Nothing specific about the use of these polyhedra is preserved, so theories are built on clues provided by some variant examples. One unusual example uses Greek words, a few of which resemble those associated with throws of the astragals (knucklebones), and this has led to suggestions they were used for games. Another remarkable example discovered in Dakhleh Oasis in Egypt in the 1980s records an Egyptian god’s name in Demotic (the Egyptian script of these late periods) on each face. Divination – seeking advice about the unknown from the supernatural – seems to be the most likely purpose for the Dakhleh die: the polyhedron might have been thrown in order to determine a god who might assist the practitioner.

Indeed, even the dice with simple letters might relate to divination: a Greek oracle book composed in in the 2nd or 3rd century AD refers to throwing lots to obtain a number that would, through certain algorithms, lead to ready-prepared oracle questions and responses.

For most of the world, the d20 probably didn’t become a household term until the 1970s when Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson unleashed their epic fantasy RPG, Dungeons & Dragons, on the world. Since then, the d20 System, as it came to be known, has been used in everything from Star Wars RPGs to Gamma World. Since then, the d20 has become a staple of the geek world, a must-have in anyone self-respecting nerd’s utility belt.

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Unfinished obelisk in Aswan (Egypt) - largest known ancient obelisk, 1500 years old.

The largest known Egyptian obelisk is called the “unfinished obelisk”, which today can be found exactly where it was once semi-carved from the solid bedrock. This stone block was intended to be a 120ft / 36m tall obelisk. It is estimated that a block of granite this size would easily weigh more than a 1000 tons, some geologists have suggested a figure in the region of 1100 tons – 1150 tons.

The obelisk's creators began to carve it directly out of bedrock, but cracks appeared in the granite and the project was abandoned. Originally it was thought that the stone had an undetected flaw but it is also possible that the quarrying process allowed the cracking to develop by releasing the stress. The bottom side of the obelisk is still attached to the bedrock. The unfinished obelisk offers unusual insights into ancient Egyptian stone-working techniques, with marks from workers' tools still clearly visible as well as ochre-coloured lines marking where they were working.

It is now known that the main tool employed for carving the granite were small balls of Dolerite which is a mineral harder than granite, as seen at the open air museum/quarry at Aswan, Egypt today. The discovery of this obelisk and several others in their unfinished states allows us to see how they were made. The means of separating the stone from the bedrock was a common technique used around the ancient world, in which small cavities were made in the stone, which were then filled with wood, which was soaked in water causing it to expand

During the earliest ages, the Ancient Egyptians knew the so-called " Pn-pn", which was a pyramidal stone with a pointed top and according to their beliefs the "Pn-pn" symbolized the primeval hill from which the world first appeared. Then, in the course of time, this Pn-pn evolved to be an obelisk usually made of granite with a pyramidal shape on top.

During the 5th Dynasty, the obelisk began to play an important role inside the temples of Ra; the obelisk being a sacred symbol of the cult of the sun. They were erected on a great base in an open court, and then as the suns rays fell on its pyramidal top, the bright light filled the Temple, giving the people a symbol of the power of the sun. One of the most important obelisks, which still stand in pride in the district of El Mataraya, was erected in front of the entrance of the vanished temple of Re at Heliopolis. King Senwosret I, to commemorate the ceremony of the "Heb-sed", dedicated it to the temple.

In the New Kingdom, especially at the time of the 18th and 19th Dynasties, the Kings used to erect obelisks in front of the different temples for religious and political reasons.

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